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Uncrewed Aircraft Systems Traffic Management Beyond Visual Line of Sight (UTM BVLOS)
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By NASA
This article is from the 2024 Technical Update.
Multiple human spaceflight programs are underway at NASA including Orion, Space Launch System, Gateway, Human Landing System, and EVA and Lunar Surface Mobility programs. Achieving success in these programs requires NASA to collaborate with a variety of commercial partners, including both new spaceflight companies and robotic spaceflight companies pursuing crewed spaceflight for the first time. It is not always clear to these organizations how to show their systems are safe for human spaceflight. This is particularly true for avionics systems, which are responsible for performing some of a crewed spacecraft’s most critical functions. NASA recently published guidance describing how to show the design of an avionic system meets safety requirements for crewed missions.
Background
The avionics in a crewed spacecraft perform many safety critical functions, including controlling the position and attitude of the spacecraft, activating onboard abort systems, and firing pyrotechnics. The incorrect operation of any of these functions can be catastrophic, causing loss of the crew. NASA’s human rating requirements describe the need for “additional rigor and scrutiny” when designing safety-critical systems beyond that done
for uncrewed spacecraft [2]. Unfortunately, it is not always clear how to interpret this guidance and show an avionics architecture is sufficiently safe. To address this problem, NASA recently published NASA/TM−20240009366 [1]. It outlines best practices for designing safety-critical avionics, as well as describes key artifacts or evidence NASA needs to assess the safety of an avionics architecture.
Failure Hypothesis
One of the most important steps to designing an avionics architecture for crewed spacecraft is specification of the failure hypothesis (FH). In short, the FH summarizes any assumptions the designers make about the type, number, and persistence of component failures (e.g., of onboard computers, network switches). It divides the space of all possible failures into two parts – failures the system is designed to tolerate and failures it is not.
One key part of the FH is a description of failure modes the system can tolerate – i.e., the behavior exhibited by a failed component. Failure modes are categorized using a failure model. A typical failure model for avionics splits failures into two broad categories:
Value failures, where data produced by a component is missing (i.e., an omissive failure) or incorrect (i.e., a transmissive failure). Timing failures, where data is produced by a component at the wrong time.
Timing failures can be further divided into many sub-categories, including:
Inadvertent activation, where data is produced by a component without the necessary preconditions. Out-of-order failures, where data is produced by a component in an incorrect sequence. Marginal timing failures, where data is produced by a component slightly too early or late.
In addition to occurring when data is produced by a component, these failure modes can also occur when data enters a component. (e.g., a faulty component can corrupt a message it receives). Moreover, all failure modes can manifest in one of two ways:
Symmetrically, where all observers see the same faulty behavior. Asymmetrically, where some observers see different faulty behavior.
Importantly, NASA’s human-rating process requires that each of these failure modes be mitigated if it can result in catastrophic effects [2]. Any exceptions must be explicitly documented and strongly justified. In addition to specifying the failure modes a system can tolerate, the FH must specify any limiting assumptions about the relative arrival times of permanent failures and radiation-induced upsets/ errors or the ability for ground operator to intervene to safe the system or take recovery actions. For more information on specifying a FH and other artifacts needed to evaluate the safety of an avionics architecture for human spaceflight, see the full report [1].
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By NASA
5 min read
Preparations for Next Moonwalk Simulations Underway (and Underwater)
NASA’s Ingenuity Mars Helicopter, right, stands near the apex of a sand ripple in an image taken by Perseverance on Feb. 24, 2024, about five weeks after the rotorcraft’s final flight. Part of one of Ingenuity’s rotor blades lies on the surface about 49 feet (15 meters) west of helicopter (at left in image).NASA/JPL-Caltech/LANL/CNES/CNRS The review takes a close look the final flight of the agency’s Ingenuity Mars Helicopter, which was the first aircraft to fly on another world.
Engineers from NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory in Southern California and AeroVironment are completing a detailed assessment of the Ingenuity Mars Helicopter’s final flight on Jan. 18, 2024, which will be published in the next few weeks as a NASA technical report. Designed as a technology demonstration to perform up to five experimental test flights over 30 days, Ingenuity was the first aircraft on another world. It operated for almost three years, performed 72 flights, and flew more than 30 times farther than planned while accumulating over two hours of flight time.
The investigation concludes that the inability of Ingenuity’s navigation system to provide accurate data during the flight likely caused a chain of events that ended the mission. The report’s findings are expected to benefit future Mars helicopters, as well as other aircraft destined to operate on other worlds.
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NASA’s Ingenuity Mars Helicopter used its black-and-white navigation camera to capture this video on Feb. 11, 2024, showing the shadow of its rotor blades. The imagery confirmed damage had occurred during Flight 72. NASA/JPL-Caltech Final Ascent
Flight 72 was planned as a brief vertical hop to assess Ingenuity’s flight systems and photograph the area. Data from the flight shows Ingenuity climbing to 40 feet (12 meters), hovering, and capturing images. It initiated its descent at 19 seconds, and by 32 seconds the helicopter was back on the surface and had halted communications. The following day, the mission reestablished communications, and images that came down six days after the flight revealed Ingenuity had sustained severe damage to its rotor blades.
What Happened
“When running an accident investigation from 100 million miles away, you don’t have any black boxes or eyewitnesses,” said Ingenuity’s first pilot, Håvard Grip of JPL. “While multiple scenarios are viable with the available data, we have one we believe is most likely: Lack of surface texture gave the navigation system too little information to work with.”
The helicopter’s vision navigation system was designed to track visual features on the surface using a downward-looking camera over well-textured (pebbly) but flat terrain. This limited tracking capability was more than sufficient for carrying out Ingenuity’s first five flights, but by Flight 72 the helicopter was in a region of Jezero Crater filled with steep, relatively featureless sand ripples.
This short animation depicts a NASA concept for a proposed follow-on to the agency’s Ingenuity Mars Helicopter called Mars Chopper, which remains in early conceptual and design stages. In addition to scouting, such a helicopter could carry science instruments to study terrain rovers can’t reach. One of the navigation system’s main requirements was to provide velocity estimates that would enable the helicopter to land within a small envelope of vertical and horizontal velocities. Data sent down during Flight 72 shows that, around 20 seconds after takeoff, the navigation system couldn’t find enough surface features to track.
Photographs taken after the flight indicate the navigation errors created high horizontal velocities at touchdown. In the most likely scenario, the hard impact on the sand ripple’s slope caused Ingenuity to pitch and roll. The rapid attitude change resulted in loads on the fast-rotating rotor blades beyond their design limits, snapping all four of them off at their weakest point — about a third of the way from the tip. The damaged blades caused excessive vibration in the rotor system, ripping the remainder of one blade from its root and generating an excessive power demand that resulted in loss of communications.
This graphic depicts the most likely scenario for the hard landing of NASA’s Ingenuity Mars Helicopter during its 72nd and final flight on Jan. 18, 2024. High horizontal velocities at touchdown resulted in a hard impact on a sand ripple, which caused Ingenuity to pitch and roll, damaging its rotor blades. NASA/JPL-Caltech Down but Not Out
Although Flight 72 permanently grounded Ingenuity, the helicopter still beams weather and avionics test data to the Perseverance rover about once a week. The weather information could benefit future explorers of the Red Planet. The avionics data is already proving useful to engineers working on future designs of aircraft and other vehicles for the Red Planet.
“Because Ingenuity was designed to be affordable while demanding huge amounts of computer power, we became the first mission to fly commercial off-the-shelf cellphone processors in deep space,” said Teddy Tzanetos, Ingenuity’s project manager. “We’re now approaching four years of continuous operations, suggesting that not everything needs to be bigger, heavier, and radiation-hardened to work in the harsh Martian environment.”
Inspired by Ingenuity’s longevity, NASA engineers have been testing smaller, lighter avionics that could be used in vehicle designs for the Mars Sample Return campaign. The data is also helping engineers as they research what a future Mars helicopter could look like — and do.
During a Wednesday, Dec. 11, briefing at the American Geophysical Union’s annual meeting in Washington, Tzanetos shared details on the Mars Chopper rotorcraft, a concept that he and other Ingenuity alumni are researching. As designed, Chopper is approximately 20 times heavier than Ingenuity, could fly several pounds of science equipment, and autonomously explore remote Martian locations while traveling up to 2 miles (3 kilometers) in a day. (Ingenuity’s longest flight was 2,310 feet, or 704 meters.)
“Ingenuity has given us the confidence and data to envision the future of flight at Mars,” said Tzanetos.
More About Ingenuity
The Ingenuity Mars Helicopter was built by JPL, which also manages the project for NASA Headquarters. It is supported by NASA’s Science Mission Directorate. NASA’s Ames Research Center in California’s Silicon Valley and NASA’s Langley Research Center in Hampton, Virginia, provided significant flight performance analysis and technical assistance during Ingenuity’s development. AeroVironment, Qualcomm, and SolAero also provided design assistance and major vehicle components. Lockheed Space designed and manufactured the Mars Helicopter Delivery System. At NASA Headquarters, Dave Lavery is the program executive for the Ingenuity Mars helicopter.
For more information about Ingenuity:
https://mars.nasa.gov/technology/helicopter
News Media Contacts
DC Agle
Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Pasadena, Calif.
818-393-9011
agle@jpl.nasa.gov
Karen Fox / Molly Wasser
NASA Headquarters, Washington
202-358-1600
karen.c.fox@nasa.gov / molly.l.wasser@nasa.gov
2024-171
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Last Updated Dec 11, 2024 Related Terms
Ingenuity (Helicopter) Astrobiology Jet Propulsion Laboratory Mars Mars 2020 Perseverance (Rover) Explore More
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By Space Force
Chief Master Sgt. of the Space Force John Bentivegna introduces "The B-Line," a new quarterly memo that will serve as a direct line of communication between the Space Force senior leader and Guardians.
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By NASA
Electra’s EL2 Goldfinch experimental prototype aircraft reference, photographed outside of NASA s Langley Research Center in Hampton, Virginia.Credit: Electra NASA Administrator Bill Nelson will fly in aircraft manufacturer Electra’s EL2 Goldfinch experimental prototype aircraft on Sunday, Dec. 8. Members of the media are invited to speak with Nelson and Electra leaders just prior to the flight at 11:45 a.m. EST at Manassas Regional Airport in Manassas, Virginia.
Electra designed the experimental aircraft with the goals of reducing emissions and noise and connecting new locations for regional air travel, including underserved communities.
Media will be able to view and film the flight, which is set to feature ultra-short takeoffs and landings with as few as 150 feet of ground roll. The flight also is set to include a battery-only landing. Media interested in participating must RSVP to Rob Margetta at robert.j.margetta@nasa.gov.
NASA’s aeronautics research works to develop new generations of sustainable aviation technologies that will create new options for both U.S. passengers and cargo. Agency-supported research aims to provide industry providers like Electra, and others, data that can help inform the designs of innovative, greener aircraft with reduced operating costs. NASA investments have included projects that explore electrified aircraft technologies, and work that helped refine the electric short-takeoff and landing concept.
The agency’s work with private sector aviation providers helps NASA in its effort to bring sustainable solutions to the American public. In November, NASA selected Electra as one of five recipients of its Advanced Aircraft Concepts for Environmental Sustainability 2050 awards, through which they will develop design studies and explore key technologies to push the boundaries of possibility for next-generation sustainable commercial aircraft. These new studies will help the agency identify and select promising aircraft concepts and technologies for further investigations.
https://www.nasa.gov/aeronautics
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Meira Bernstein / Rob Margetta
Headquarters, Washington
202-358-1600
meira.b.bernstein@nasa.gov / robert.j.margetta@nasa.gov
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Last Updated Dec 05, 2024 LocationNASA Headquarters Related Terms
Aeronautics Aeronautics Research Aeronautics Research Mission Directorate Green Aviation Tech View the full article
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By NASA
3 Min Read Matt Dominick’s X Account: A Visual Journey from Space
We are lucky to have had the opportunity to fly in space and feel a responsibility to share with humanity the incredible views of the Earth and the cosmos.
Matt dominick
NASA Astronaut
NASA astronaut and Expedition 72 Flight Engineer Matthew Dominick launched to the International Space Station on March 3, 2024 as the commander of NASA’s SpaceX Crew-8 mission. As a flight engineer aboard the orbiting laboratory, Dominick conducted scientific research while capturing breathtaking views of Earth and beyond from the ultimate vantage point—250 miles above the planet.
Dominick’s X account (@dominickmatthew) has become a visual diary, showcasing the beauty of our planet captured from low Earth orbit during his 235 days in space. From the ethereal glow of auroras dancing across the atmosphere to comets rising up over the horizon during an orbital sunrise, each meticulously captured image reflects his dedication to sharing the wonders of space exploration through social media. He goes beyond simply posting pictures; he reveals the techniques behind his astrophotography, including camera settings and insights into his creative process, inviting followers to appreciate the artistry involved.
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Matt Dominick shared this timelapse video to his X account in August 2024, showing the Moon setting into streams of red and green aurora.Matt Dominick See the full X post here.
Amid his daily astronaut duties, Dominick dedicated personal time to this endeavor, amassing nearly 500,000 captivating photos of Earth and snapshots of life aboard the International Space Station, while having traveled 99,708,603 total statue miles around our home planet. Through his lens(es), he invited us to experience the awe of space while highlighting the realities of life in orbit, fostering an authentic connection with those who engage with his work.
Building on this commitment to connect, Dominick participated in the first-ever live X Spaces event from space, marking a new way for NASA astronauts to connect personally with followers. He shared insider tips on astrophotography from orbit and discussed the challenges and joys of capturing stunning images in microgravity. Concluding the event, he vividly narrated his live experience floating into the Cupola at sunset while orbiting over Paris just days before the 2024 Summer Olympic Games.
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A screen recording of the first X Spaces event from space featuring NASA astronaut Matt Dominick.NASA Dominick’s journey as an astronaut unfolds in real-time on his X account. He has captured the arrivals and departures of various spacecraft, documented dynamic weather events, and even participated in Olympic festivities. His stunning timelapses and behind-the-scenes videos offer an intimate look at life aboard the space station, beautifully illustrating the intricate interplay between science and wonder.
What sets Dominick’s account apart is his playful perspective. He invites his audience into lighthearted moments—whether he’s cleaning his retainer in microgravity, relishing the arrival of fresh fruit, or sharing insights from the ISS toolbox. By documenting and sharing these experiences, he demystifies the complexities of space travel, making it an accessible and relatable journey for all. Through his engaging posts, Dominick cultivates a deeper connection with his followers, encouraging them to share in the beauty and reality of life beyond our planet.
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Matt Dominick shared this video video to his X account in August 2024 after receiving fresh fruit aboard the International Space Station.Matt Dominick See the full X post here.
Visit Dominick’s X account (@dominickmatthew) to experience the wonders of space through his eyes, enriched by his remarkable journey of orbiting the Earth 3,760 times.
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Last Updated Dec 05, 2024 Related Terms
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